Two Enemies Who Saved Each Other

The picture above shows Manuel Roxas of the Philippines and Colonel Nobuhiko Jimbo of the Imperial Japanese Army who was part of the forces that occupied The Philippines during the Second World War. These two men began and ended the conflict on opposite sides and yet each man owed the other his life. Manuel Roxas was a prominent leader in The Philippines before the war, serving for twelve years as the Speaker of the House of Representatives. When the United States of America agreed to grant independence to The Philippines, Roxas served in the convention to draw up the constitution for the new country and he served as Secretary of Finance along with other positions and was a brigadier general in the Filipino army. Elected to the Senate, he was unable to take his seat because of the outbreak of war and when Japanese forces attacked the Philippines he was made liaison officer between the armies of the Commonwealth of the Philippines and the United States of America. Eventually, of course, the American and Filipino forces were defeated by the Japanese troops under the noble General Masaharu Homma and finally surrendered. Roxas was among those taken prisoner.

This was a time of great pain and suffering. General Homma gave orders to treat the Filipinos as brothers and forbid any acts of cruelty, however, there were others who were hate-filled and who did horrible things, sometimes on orders they had forged in General Homma's name. Whenever the general found out about such things, he had the guilty officers reprimanded. A few weeks after the surrender, General Manuel Roxas was taken prisoner and the local Japanese commander, General Torao Ikuta, received an order to execute him. General Ikuta was also an honorable man and was greatly distressed at being given such an order. He sent the order on to a subordinate officer, Colonel Nobuhiko Jimbo. As it happened, Colonel Jimbo was another example of an upright officer. He was also a Catholic, the same as Roxas, and was disgusted by the very idea of murdering him, regardless of military orders which seemed to be genuine. He struggled with his conscience as he was transporting the prisoners.

Roxas and a local governor were both taken by Colonel Jimbo to be executed but the governor pleaded for his life and Colonel Jimbo bravely determined that he could not and would not execute the two men. He went personally to General Ikuta to urge him to spare the two men, regardless of what orders had been issued. It would be barbaric and such orders, he reasoned, had to be some sort of mistake. General Ikuta quickly agreed and had the prisoners hidden away. However, an officer soon arrived from Manila demanding that the executions be carried out and that Colonel Jimbo be court-martialed for his efforts to save their lives. Again, showing great courage and character, Colonel Jimbo was still not prepared to give up and traveled to Manila himself to confront General Homma directly. General Homma was not in his office when Jimbo arrived but he spoke to Homma’s chief of staff who could not believe that the general would give such an order. Jimbo handed him the document which the Chief of Staff suspended and immediately and then confronted the junior general he suspected of being responsible for the false order.

When General Homma returned to his headquarters and learned of the whole situation, he immediately countermanded the execution of Roxas and personally thanked Colonel Jimbo for his brave stand in the cause of justice and humanity. He told the colonel that he would be sure to mention his actions when he returned home and gave his report to the Emperor. Roxas would go on to be the first President of The Philippines after the war. General Homma, however, was not allowed to make his report to the Emperor as his enemies within the army succeeded in having him relieved of command and sent home. Not being allowed to report to the Emperor, as was customary, was done as a sign of his semi-disgrace. He was an unjust action for a general so talented, dedicated and honorable as General Homma. Worse was to come, however, as after the war, General Homma was returned to The Philippines where he was convicted and executed as a war criminal; a case so blatantly unjust that even a number of very prominent Americans spoke out against it and harshly condemned their own countrymen for participating in such a disgraceful act.

The upright Colonel Nobuhiko Jimbo almost suffered a similar fate. He had been transferred to China and was himself arrested at the end of the conflict as a potential "war criminal". In 1946, Filipino President Roxas, however, learned that Colonel Jimbo was being held in prison in northern China awaiting trial and he acted to return the favor the colonel had done in saving his life. Roxas wrote personally to Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, explaining the situation and asking that Colonel Jimbo be given amnesty. The Chinese leader agreed and the following year Colonel Jimbo was released and returned to Japan. He had survived but only because of the timely intervention of the man whose life he had saved. If Roxas had not found out about Jimbo in time, he mostly likely would have been executed in the wave of anti-Japanese hysteria in China in the aftermath of the war. These two men, one Filipino, one Japanese, had started and ended the war on opposite sides and yet each had saved the life of the other. While many seem to enjoy remembering only the cruel and sad events of the war, more emphasis should be given to remembering those like Colonel Jimbo Nobuhiko who risked everything to save the life of one man.

Captain Fuchida Mitsuo 淵田 美津雄

Captain Fuchida Mitsuo will forever be remembered for the leading part he played in a pivotal moment of world history. It was he who led the first wave of planes into the attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii on December 7, 1941. He was instrumental in one of the greatest victories in the military history of Japan. Additionally, after the war, he would win another type of victory, a moral victory, in setting an example that helped many Americans see Japan in a new way and to realize that the Japanese were not enemies but valued friends. He was born on December 3, 1902 in Nara Prefecture and from early in life was filled with the zeal of a patriot who wanted to serve his country and the Emperor. In 1921 he enrolled at the naval academy in Etajima, Hiroshima and was passed as a midshipman in 1924. While there he befriended a brilliant fellow classmate, Genda Minoru, who would be the one to plan the intricate attack on Pearl Harbor two decades later.

Ensign Fuchida chose to specialize in naval aviation and as he worked his way up the chain of command, becoming a lieutenant by 1930, he was especially expert at horizontal bombing. His skill was so great that he was chosen to be an instructor in this field later in 1936. In the meantime, however, he gained his first combat experience during the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1929, serving on the aircraft carrier Kaga and leading bombing missions in the Hankow region while stationed at Nanking. Further promotions and different assignments followed and he was also accepted into the Naval Staff College. In 1939, by then Lieutenant Commander Fuchida was transferred to the aircraft carrier Akagi, a ship that would always be special to him. In October of 1941 he was promoted to full Commander in charge of the Akagi's air group. When it became known that he would lead the attack on Pearl Harbor if a peaceful settlement with the United States could not be reached, he was honored. He knew the United States had Japan outmatched in military terms but was confident that Germany would win the war in Europe and that would enable Japan to win in Asia.

He trained his pilots diligently for the operation and on the morning of December 7 led them into the home base of the U.S. Pacific Fleet. Everything went exceedingly well. The American forces were taken by complete surprise and the U.S. fleet in Pearl Harbor was decimated. Commander Fuchida returned to the Akagi to wild cheers for the part he had played in the victory. Privately, however, he was disappointed that Admiral Nagumo decided to withdraw rather than sending in a third attack wave to destroy the naval infrastructure facilities. The problem was that no American carriers were found at Pearl and Admiral Nagumo was concerned that if they should appear while his planes were attacking Hawaii, the Japanese fleet could be wiped out. In any event, the victory had been great enough on its own and Commander Fuchida was a genuine war hero. Upon his return to Japan he was summoned to the Imperial Palace for an audience with the Emperor. Later, Commander Fuchida recalled how interested His Majesty was in the details of his report and that he was very concerned about any American civilian casualties. Fuchida assured His Majesty that no civilian areas were hit during the attack.

With the Greater East Asian War underway, Commander Fuchida participated in the bombing attacks on Darwin, Australia. Later he served with great success in the air attacks on British naval bases at Ceylon. He was wounded at the pivotal Battle of Midway, preventing him from flying afterwards and when the Akagi sank he broke both his ankles in an explosion. Afterwards, he served for the remainder of the war as a staff officer and in 1944 was promoted to captain. He was in Hiroshima the day before the atomic bomb was dropped for a naval conference but was called back to Tokyo on the day of the attack. The day after Hiroshima was destroyed, he was sent to the city to report on the damage. Everyone else in his party would eventually die of radiation poisoning but Captain Fuchida was spared. When the end of the war came, Captain Fuchida was most enraged by the last-minute declaration of war by Soviet Russia. It was a dishonorable "stab in the back" that he would never forget and it encouraged him to join with the rebel faction that wished to continue the war. However, he was able to speak to HIH Prince Takamatsu who told him that it was the will of the Emperor that there be peace and this convinced Fuchida, dutiful above all else, to accept the surrender. It probably saved his life.

After the war, things were difficult for him as they were for almost everyone. He resented the occupation and the Tokyo War Crimes Trials where he was called to testify. However, he also heard first hand accounts from close friends that caused him to see his old enemy in a new way. He heard from men who had been captured that the Americans had not tortured them and one group talked about a girl volunteer who helped take care of them even though her parents had been killed by the Japanese during the fighting in The Philippines where they had been working as missionaries. The story of an American veteran of the "Doolittle Raid" who had been captured by Japanese forces but who bore no ill-will toward his captors also intrigued him. After being introduced to Christianity, he began to study the religion further and in 1949, after reading the Bible completely for himself, Captain Fuchida converted to Christianity (Protestant Evangelical). This set his life on a new course from that time on.

Captain Fuchida came to be widely known in the Christian evangelical movement in Japan and the United States. He traveled extensively in America and became friends with the America's most famous evangelist Billy Graham. His story touched the hearts of Americans who had been taught during the war to view the Japanese as wicked and treacherous enemies. That a man like Captain Fuchida could become a Christian and view them as his brothers and sisters illustrated that they had allowed hatred to overcome them. This man from the outside had showed them what they should have known all along and Captain Fuchida became very famous and beloved in the Christian evangelical community in the United States. He also visited Europe and was horrified by the stories of the poverty and oppression from the other side of the "Iron Curtain". It reinforced his view that communism was a fundamentally evil doctrine, in the eyes of man and God alike. Although he lived in the United States for a time, Captain Fuchida lost none of his old loyalties. He said, "When I became a Christian, I remained a patriot of Japan. I still love my country and my people." He worked to convert people to Christianity all over the world and hoped for peace but he knew that the nature of man would mean war would not go away and so he also stated that he thought Japan should have its own nuclear weapons to deter any acts of aggression by other powers.

Fuchida Mitsuo died in Kashiwara on May 30, 1976 after a lifetime of dedicated and successful service. As a naval officer, he had served his country to the best of his ability and contributed to some of the greatest victories in Japanese military history. As an evangelist he had won hundreds of converts to Christianity by his sincerity and powerful personal story. His devotion, to his country and his God also helped to heal the wounds of war and bring Japan and the United States closer together on a personal level. From start to finish his life had been one of service and he pursued every goal, in war or peace, with zealous dedication.

The Catholic Daimyo

The Catholic daimyo Takayama Ukon who was forced to leave Japan and go into exile in The Philippines due to anti-Christian laws. He was a staunchly loyal Japanese though as he refused a Spanish offer to command an army to conquer Japan. This statue stands in front of the Cathedral of Tamatsukuri of Saint Mary in Osaka city.

すべての人をうやまい、兄弟たちを愛し、神をおそれ、王を尊びなさい

高山右近 Takayama Ukon, the Christian Samurai

Takayama Ukon or Dom Justo Takayama was a Catholic daimyo of the Sengoku period of Japanese history. Born in 1552 in Haibara-cho, Nara he was the son and heir of the daimyo Takayama Tomoteru of Sawa Castle in Yamato. As a child he was known as Hikogorō (彦五郎) and in 1564, at the age of 12, he was baptized and given the Christian name Justo when his father converted to Catholicism. At his coming of age ceremony he was named Shigetomo (重友). Today he is best known by the name of Ukon from his time as the officer of Ukonoefu. Alongside his father, he fought as a samurai to defend the lands of his father and further establish his position as daimyo. They fought in the armies of the great Japanese warriors Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi, gaining Takatsuki Castle in Osaka. They also were very open and straightforward in presenting themselves as Kirishitan daimyo (Christian noble lords). They fought heroically on the battlefield, their faith preventing them from any fear of death and were also compassionate to others in peace. Their example moved many of those around them to convert to Catholicism as well. During this time there was freedom of religion in Japan but still those who were suspicious of the Christian religion. Takayama Ukon was determined to set a good example and show that one could be an honorable Japanese samurai and a sincere Christian since the value system supported rather than contradicted each other.

To be honest, upright, virtuous, loyal and moderate with a focus on family and self-improvement were traditional Japanese values which were also upheld by Christianity. However, Toyotomi Hideyoshi was growing alarmed by the spread of Christianity, particularly after the Spanish took control of the Philippines. He feared that the religion was only the first step to a foreign invasion. It was not a correct assumption but also not a baseless one. In any event, in 1587 Lord Hideyoshi ordered the eviction of all Catholic missionaries from Japan and placed many restrictions on the Christian religion in Japan. It was then illegal for any daimyo to be a Catholic. For many people, the Catholic faith was new and did not have strong roots, so they followed the order and renounced their religion. Takayama Ukon, however, had stronger convictions. He was strong in his faith as well as steadfast in his loyalty to Japan, His Majesty the Emperor and the designated national leadership. So, rather than give up his Christian faith, Takayama Ukon shocked everyone by giving up his lands instead. Everything he had fought so long and so hard for, he handed over willingly rather than renounce his faith in God. He would not turn his back on Christ nor would he disobey the laws set down by his overlord and ruler. Truly, his example was an inspiration.

For many years Christianity remained legal in Japan but restricted and Takayama Ukon was able to live under the protection of friends as his kindness and upright behavior had earned him many admirers. He was known for his mastery of "Sado" (the intricate tea ceremony) and was one of the seven disciples of the 'tea master' Sen-no-Rikyu. However, things changed after Tokugawa Ieyasu came to power in Japan, establishing the Tokugawa Shogunate. Whereas, in the past, Christianity had been tolerated but discouraged, under Tokugawa Ieyasu it was to suppressed completely (again, due to fears which were not really justified but which were understandable given the situation at the time). In 1614 the Shogun prohibited the practice of Christianity in Japan and any who refused to renounce their religion would be exiled. Many in the Kirishitan community continued to practice their religion in secret but for Takayama Ukon, this was not possible. He was too well-known and would not defy the law no matter how painful it was for him. On November 8, 1614 the Catholic daimyo along with 300 other Japanese Catholics left Japan from Nagasaki.

On December 21 he arrived in Manila in The Philippines where his fame had preceded him. The Spanish officials, Jesuit priests and crowds of Filipino Catholics turned out to do him honor, having heard stories of the heroic Japanese samurai who had given up all his property rather than renounce his Christian faith and had now accepted exile rather than betray his God or his country. Christians had been persecuted in Japan because the government feared they would be potential traitors and the tools of foreign aggressors. However, Takayama Ukon proved definitively that this was not true. Not long after landing in The Philippines, he was approached by Spanish officials who offered to send him back home with a Spanish army to defeat the Shogun, rescue the Japanese Christians and protect them from further persecution. However, Takayama Ukon saw this as the Spanish simply trying to seize an opportunity to conquer Japan and make it one of their colonies so he firmly refused. He was a loyal Catholic and a loyal subject of the Emperor and would remain so until he died. He would not betray his faith or his country and would not allow any foreign invader to use him to violate Japanese sovereignty, even if they had some good intentions. He thanked the Spanish politely for their concern but firmly refused their offer. There would be no Spanish expedition to Japan.

The love and devotion Takayama Ukon had for Japan was as deep as that of any samurai of any faith, Christian, Buddhist, Shinto or other. He was treated with great respect and kindness in The Philippines but his health began to fail very soon and it seemed that being parted from his beloved Japan was too much for him to take. Only forty days after arriving the great Catholic daimyo weakened with sickness and died. The area of Manila was called Paco and eventually became home to several thousand Japanese Christians. In all that remains of the old town, Plaza Dilao, stands a statue of Takayama Ukon, known there as Dom Justo Takayama, dressed in his samurai robes, his hair in traditional Japanese style and holding a sword with the image of a crucifix to symbolize his status as both a Catholic and a Japanese warrior. The Spanish authorities buried him with full military honors as a Daimyo, the first of such rank to be buried in The Philippines. It was a focus of devotion for many Japanese Christians and, in time, a cause was started for Takayama Ukon with the Congregation for the Causes of the Saints in Rome. He is currently titled as "Venerable" and will probably be beatified (declared "Blessed") next year, the last step on the path to being recognized as a saint. Certainly, Takayama Ukon is a worthy candidate for such recognition. His faith was steadfast and he gave up all he had, even leaving his country, rather than deny Christ. He was also just as firm in his patriotic love of country and loyalty to Japan. He did just as the Scriptures commanded to "fear God and honor the Emperor".

すべての人をうやまい、兄弟たちを愛し、神をおそれ、王を尊びなさい。

1 Peter 2:17

Sugihara Chiune 杉原 千畝

One of the most remarkable men in the Japanese diplomatic corps in World War II was Chiune Sugihara who was also an Orthodox Christian. Born on January 1, 1900 in Yaotsu, Gifu prefecture, he attended Waseda University where he studied English. Throughout his youth he was known as an exceptionally gifted student. After earning a scholarship he was recruited into the Japanese Foreign Ministry and assigned to Harbin, Manchuria where he also studied the Russian and German languages and became an expert in Russian affairs. He did diplomatic work as part of the ongoing problems between Russia and Japan over the rail network in Manchuria which had originally been under the control of Czarist Russia and which the Soviets were trying to reclaim. However, he did resign finally in protest over the way some of his countrymen mistreated the local people. (General Kanji Ishihara later made similar complaints). It was also while in Harbin that Chiune Sugihara converted to Christianity, being baptized into the Eastern Orthodox Church. During these years he also married a Russian woman but the couple later divorced, his wife initiating the divorce, because she did not want to have children. It worked out for the best though as Chiune later returned to Japan and married Yukiko Kikuchi who was a remarkable woman, as upright and devoted as her husband.

杉原幸子

Chiune and Yukiko settled down to a happy family life and over time had four sons. He still worked for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and was sent further abroad to the Japanese delegation in Helsinki, Finland where he worked as a translator. In 1939 Chiune Sugihara was posted to Lithuania as a vice-consul to assist the local diplomat post as well as keeping an eye on German and Japanese troop movements in the region. His family came with him and Yukiko would be a strong and invaluable support to her husband during this time. It was a critical time for the world as war had just broken out in Europe. Germany invaded Poland and a short time later (after Polish resistance was broken) the Soviets invaded from the east and Poland was partitioned between them. This was when the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact was in effect between Germany and Russia. One Poland had been conquered and occupied there was immediately a flood of refugees from Poland to Lithuania, many of whom were Jews who were naturally fearful of being under the rule of Nazi Germany. There were also many Jews already in Lithuania and the country was nervous that it would soon be invaded as well as there had been territorial disputes with Germany and the Soviet dictator Stalin had made no secret of his desire to claim all the Baltic countries for the USSR. Many began to appear at the Japanese consulate where Sugihara worked asking for exit visas to escape the country. Chiune Sugihara asked the Japanese government what he should do and three times the government said he could not give the people visas, for the understandable reason that they had not gone through the proper legal process and that Japan was unable to take on large numbers of foreigners when the country was already under great strain.

杉原 千畝

However, more and more Jews appeared, desperate for help and a way to escape and Sugihara felt that he had to do something. He talked to his family and it was agreed that they had to help the Jewish refugees. He said later that, seeing their suffering with his own eyes, there was no way he could ignore their plight and so he decided to take action. "Do what is right because it is right and leave it alone" he said. Acting on his own authority, Sugihara began writing out exit visas in his own hand and giving them to the Jewish refugees. Of course, word spread quickly that the quiet Japanese gentleman in Kovno was handing out exit visas and soon his home was besieged by huge crowds of Jews desperate to escape the advancing German armies. In response, Sugihara worked even harder, writing out exit visas and signing them all day every day without stop. He signed visas for hours on end, while he was eating, all day, every day with Yukiko massaging his sore hands at night. He worked and worked for longer and longer hours writing and signing exit visas for the crowds of refugees who, when given them, were so thankful that many kissed his feet. He also talked to Russian officials who agreed to let the Jews pass safely through the Soviet Union to Japan.

Word finally came that the consulate was being closed and Sugihara was being transferred to Germany. He and his wife stayed up all night before their day of departure, filling out exit visas to the last possible moment. Finally, with time running out, he simply began signing blank pieces of paper so that these could be left behind and filled out by the Jews themselves and used to escape. He left behind his official seal for this purpose. Even as his train was pulling out of town he kept signing visas and passing them out the window to the crowds of people wishing to escape. In all, Chiune Sugihara saved the lives of about 6,000 Jews by his actions. They traveled across Soviet Russia, were taken to Kobe in Japan and were finally relocated to Shanghai in part of China occupied by Japan where they were protected by the Imperial Japanese Army. For Sugihara, he served in Berlin and later other cities in German-occupied Europe, lastly in Bucharest, Romania. When the Soviet Red Army invaded Romania he and his family were arrested and put in prison. This was in 1944 remember, before the Soviet Union had declared war on Japan. After the war was over, Sugihara was finally released with his family and allowed to return home to Japan.

Orthodox Christian icon of Sugihara

As the Empire of Japan was dissolved, to be replaced by the modern State of Japan, Sugihara was dismissed from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and he settled in Fujisawa to a hard life, as many people had, taking any available job to support his family. He was a very modest and humble man who never talked about the fact that he had saved the lives of thousands of people from certain death. With his country in ruins and going through a difficult transition, it was hard for individual stories like his to gain attention, particularly when the person in question never talked about it. He did what he had thought was the right, moral thing to do according to his Christian values and he never sought any reward or recognition for doing the right thing. However, others remembered, especially the people he saved. His kindness and compassion was the difference between life and death for thousands of people and, with their descendants, tens of thousands. He worked for an export company and finally worked for sixteen years in the Soviet Union, using his knowledge of the Russian language, while his family remained in Japan. When he died in Kamakura in 1986, tributes poured in from around the world. Many of his neighbors were astonished to know that the quiet man next door had saved the lives of thousands of people during the war. He was honored by the State of Israel as one of the "Righteous Gentiles" and his memory has been honored ever since in the Christian community, particularly the Eastern Orthodox, as an example of Christian charity, kindness, humility and compassion. For that, he shall always be remembered.

すべての人をうやまい、兄弟たちを愛し、神をおそれ、王を尊びなさい。

1 Peter 2:17

A Priestly Plan for Japanese and East Asian Security

Bishop Walsh

Prior to the outbreak of the Greater East Asian War, an attempt at Japanese-American reconciliation was made on the initiative of two Catholic priests; Bishop James E. Walsh, (a veteran of much missionary work in China) Superior General of the Maryknoll Society, and his assistant Father James M. Drought. It is important to note the experience Bishop Walsh had in China and his understanding of the threat posed by the communist insurgency (something which many in the United States did not understand). These two men were convinced that the rising tensions between Japan and the United States were ill-founded and unnecessary and that a lasting peace could be arranged by reasonable men on both sides of the Pacific. Knowing the threat posed by the communists in China and recognizing that Japan was the only power placed to deal with this crisis, they hoped that the Roosevelt administration in Washington DC could be shown that, far from being a problem, Japan was the solution in East Asia that America should support.

The two priests traveled to Tokyo and met with Tadao Ikawa, one of the directors of the Central Agricultural and Forestry Bank. They presented him with a memorandum which proposed a Japanese “Far Eastern Monroe Doctrine”. This, of course, was a reference to the Monroe Doctrine which established the American foreign policy that the United States would be neutral to existing European colonies in the Americas but would resist any effort by European powers to interfere in the affairs of the Americas to expand their colonial rule or hinder the newly independent countries established in Central and South America. It laid the ground work for the “special relationship” between the United States and Great Britain and essentially said that if there were any problems or threats in the Americas it would be the United States that would deal with them and not any non-American powers. The two Catholic priests proposed something similar with the Empire of Japan taking the position in East Asia that the United States took in the Americas.

Look! The cruel injustice of the Communists!

This would mean that the colonial holdings of Europe (the only American holding being The Philippines which was being given its independence) were not to be molested but could not be expanded and that no non-Asian powers could meddle in the affairs of East Asian countries. The Empire of Japan would be responsible for maintaining peace and order in the region and if any problems in East Asia should arise it would be Japan that would deal with them with no interference by non-Asian powers. If this should have also led to a “special relationship” between Japan and the United States, that would probably have been something the priests would have looked forward to. However, there was no doubt that the first problem that had to be dealt with was the spread of communism in China and the two Catholic clerics were adamant that Japan should be supported in taking the initiative to stop this “corroding social disease”, as the memorandum called it, before it became an “epidemic”. Ikawa had worked in the United States as part of the Finance Ministry and was impressed by the idea and confident that Japan would agree to it.

Colonel Iwakuro

The priests assured the Japanese officials that they had the support of leading men in America, which the Japanese assumed to mean President Roosevelt, which was not true, nonetheless Ikawa took the priests to meet with Prime Minister Prince Konoye and Foreign Minister Matsuoka. The Prince sent them to the War Ministry to speak to Colonel Hideo Iwakuro who was known for his position that an alliance with America would be the key to success for Japan. He was also an expert intelligence officer who had set up the Nakano School for intelligence agents and who had saved the lives of five thousand Jewish refugees by allowing them into Manchuria, persuading the Kwantung Army leadership that as it had been a Jewish-American firm that loaned Japan the money needed to win the war against Russia, abandoning them would be dishonorable. He introduced the priests to General Akira Muto, head of the Military Affairs Bureau who approved of their plan and gave it his full support.

At the start of 1941 the two priests returned to America in the hope of finding as much support in Washington as they had in Tokyo. Their first supporter was the Postmaster General, Frank C. Walker, one of the most prominent Catholics in America. He arranged for the priests to finally meet with President Roosevelt and Bishop Walsh presented his memorandum to the President. Unfortunately, when it came to Japan, Roosevelt seemed unwilling to ever take any action without the approval of his Secretary of State Cordell Hull who had an undeniable prejudice against Japan. Hull voiced skepticism in a note written by his senior advisor on Far Eastern Affairs Dr. Stanley Hornbeck who was one of the most anti-Japanese and pro-Chinese members of the administration. Still, Roosevelt empowered Walker to act as his agent in pursuing the idea. Likewise, in Japan, Colonel Iwakuro was dispatched to the United States with the support of General Hideki Tojo. He went to St Patrick’s Cathedral in New York City and met with Bishop Walsh where he was met with the disappointing news that the Roosevelt administration had decided that the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy prevented any such American agreement with Japan and Japan would not betray German and Italy. Colonel Iwakuro was also met with resistance by the Japanese diplomats in America who saw his actions as the Imperial Army interfering in matters that should be handled by their own office.

As negotiations went on the original intent of the memorandum, of the Japanese “Far Eastern Monroe Doctrine” was all but forgotten as the focus shifted almost entirely to China and the proposal that Japan withdraw all troops from China in exchange for the Republic of China recognizing the independence of the Empire of Manchukuo and forming a sort of coalition government with the rival regime of Wang Ching-wei. The American State Department, under Hull, rejected the proposal almost completely. To make matters worse, however, Hull gave the Japanese ambassador, Admiral Nomura, the impression that the proposal would be a basis for future negotiations when in fact he had no intention of doing so and the result was a long, fruitless series of negotiations or attempted negotiations that achieved nothing but to increase bitterness in Japan that the Roosevelt administration was not acting in good faith but was simply trying to put off the Japanese while Japan grew weaker and American forces in the region grew stronger. Which was, sadly, entirely correct. However, why does this history matter to us today? What can we learn from the peace efforts of two Catholic priests in 1941?

The relevance of this to the present time is that the basic idea put forward in their memorandum, of a “Far Eastern Monroe Doctrine” supervised by Japan is a viable foreign policy position today. In fact, there is far more likelihood of such a policy being workable today or at least in the near future than there was in 1941. The biggest question today would be whether or not the Japanese people are willing to take up the responsibility for East Asia. If there is the will in Japan to pursue such a policy, there is no reason why it could not be implemented. Unlike in 1941, there seems little doubt that such a move would have the full backing of the United States, Great Britain, Australia and most of the Southeast Asian countries. Of course, colonialism is no longer an issue but those portions could be replaced with similar assurances dealing with existing defensive alliances. Also, just as in the original memorandum, the preeminent focus of such a doctrine would be the communist forces in China who, unhappily, now happen to control much more than they did in 1941. Suppressing them would not be immediately possible but such a doctrine would allow for the containment of their expansionist impulses and a revived and involved Japan would be the power best placed to do it.

The biggest difference between today and 1941 is that the danger of Communist China has been demonstrated. In 1941, few of the major powers other than Japan took the threat seriously. The United States, most importantly, saw the China Incident only as the Japanese on one side and China on the other whereas, in fact, the Japanese government stated a willingness to make peace with the nationalists, even for the United States to broker that peace, and withdraw from China (Manchukuo being independent) so long as Japanese forces remained where necessary to deal with the communist insurgency. The United States chose to take the side of China and oppose Japan, the other major powers following along. However, though the American government would never openly admit it, American policy and actions have demonstrated that they understand that this was a mistake because today the United States supports Japan and opposes China, even more so than the Republic of China on Taiwan. Whereas in 1941 the Roosevelt administration was suspicious of Japan, today both the major political parties in the United States have welcomed the new policy of collective self-defense proposed by Prime Minister Abe and have encouraged Japan to strengthen the Self-Defense Forces. Today, the United States wants Japan to play a larger part in ensuring the peace and stability of East Asia.

This would be the perfect time for Japan to begin the shift to this new doctrine. The support for collective self-defense measures has been growing and more people on both sides of the Pacific have wanted Japan to take a more active part in its own self-defense. Japan is also protected by the most powerful and advanced military in the world, the United States, and so would be able to build up its own military strength in safety until fully prepared to take on this larger responsibility for the region. Australia has expressed its support for Japan strengthening the armed forces and other countries in the region could be expected to go along with it due to the growing fears of communist Chinese expansion. Under this doctrine it would be the duty of a revitalized Japan to keep communist aggression contained and to deal with any problems in East Asia that pose a threat to the security and stability of the region. The recent increased closeness between Russia and China would also be a reason why America and Europe would probably support such a doctrine for a more prominent Japan to keep watch over the region. To put it in terms that the two priests in 1941 might appreciate, Japan would be the “guardian angel” of East Asia in the same way that the United States is in the Americas and NATO is in Europe. Given the political climate of today, there is no reason why such a plan could not work, it would only require the Japanese public to be awakened to supporting a much larger and more assertive role for Japan on the world stage.

Christianity in Japan

すべての人をうやまい、兄弟たちを愛し、神をおそれ、王を尊びなさい。

Servant of God Nagai Takashi 永井 隆

There is a new film called "All That Remains" about the life of Servant of God Takashi Nagai. A blog covering the making of the film can be found here and a synopsis of it on the Christian Film Database here. Takashi Nagai was an atheist, a brilliant scientist and a proud descendant of the samurai class who was shaken by his experience in war, moved by the devotion of his wife and the story of the Christians of Nagasaki. Most of all, he was traumatized by the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, the city with the largest and oldest Christian community in Japan. He converted to Christianity, becoming a Roman Catholic, taking the baptismal name of Paul and after the war devoted himself to the cause of peace. He earned the respect and admiration of people from around the world and was even honored with a visit by His Majesty the Showa Emperor. There are a few things about his story that I have been asked about; his accounts of atrocities in the war in Manchuria and China and his post-war advocacy of peace in light of my own firm conviction of the necessity in re-interpreting Article IX.

As for his war time experiences, many people miss the basic fact that is right in front of their faces. Takashi Nagai was serving as a doctor with the Imperial Japanese Army and was shocked by the brutality showed towards the Chinese, many of whom he treated himself. This is not surprising because war is brutal by nature and the way the war in China was conducted was particularly so because the enemy could not always be seen. They did not always wear uniforms and fight in regular battles but behaved like bandits or terrorists. In such instances, not knowing who is an enemy and who is not, it is human nature to be on guard against everyone. However, what many miss is the fact that Takashi Nagai was a Japanese doctor who treated Chinese soldiers and civilians. Those who are eager to portray Japan negatively immediately rush to point out any real or perceived misdeeds by Japanese soldiers but ignore the fact that the Imperial Japanese Army used its own medical supplies and doctors to care for the enemy as well as their own. As for his post-war activities, working for peace is a noble goal and should be applauded. That is not the same thing as trusting blindly to peace when your enemy is intent on using force. We should work for peace whenever possible but always be prepared for when there is no other option but conflict. Takashi Nagai himself was also not blind to this nor did his experience in Nagasaki make him opposed to the use of nuclear power even while he opposed the use of nuclear weapons.

Finally though, I want to point out a sharp contrast. In January of this year, I mentioned that the Catholic bishops of South Korea have been pushing for the canonization of An Jung Geun, the assassin who murdered Prince Ito Hirobumi. His cause has not progressed and hopefully the authorities in Rome will put a stop to such an obscene campaign. However, there is also a cause for the canonization of Takashi Nagai underway and his cause has progressed as he has been declared a "Servant of God" which is the first step toward being recognized as a saint. I point this out only because it speaks very well of the Catholic Church in Japan and in sharp contrast to their counterparts in Korea. The Catholics of Japan honor a man who healed others and worked for peace between all peoples whereas the Catholics of Korea honor a man who committed multiple murders and is used to foster hatred of their neighbor. It speaks very well for Japan and the Japanese can be comforted that Jesus Christ said, "blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called the sons of God". He, of course, never said such a thing about assassins.

すべての人をうやまい、兄弟たちを愛し、神をおそれ、王を尊びなさい

イースター おめでとう!

Rebirth

Faith

Fun

Food

(and kawaii is liked by everyone)

HIH Prince Yasuhiko Asaka of Japan (朝香宮鳩彦王)

One of the more interesting but also controversial members of the Imperial Family in the latter days of the Empire of Japan was HIH Prince Yasuhiko Asaka. He was born on October 20, 1887 in Kyoto, the eighth son (out of roughly eighteen children) of Prince Kuni Asahiko (a former Buddhist priest). His mother was the lady Tsunoda Sugako and his father was the adopted son HM Emperor Ninko, father of HM Emperor Komei and grandfather of HM Emperor Meiji. This made Prince Yasuhiko a member of one of the four main collateral branches of the Japanese Imperial Family, eligible for a place in the imperial succession. One of his nieces, a daughter of one of his half-brothers, was Princess Nagako who would eventually become Empress Kojun as consort to HM the Showa Emperor. As a prince of the Imperial Family, during the Meiji era, he was always expected to be a soldier. He went to school at Gakushuin Peers’ School, where the Japanese nobility and Imperial Family were educated before going on to the Central Military Preparatory School to begin the foundational training for a military career.

On March 10, 1906 HM Emperor Meiji granted him the title of Prince Asaka and gave him permission to start his own branch of the Imperial Family as had been done by his father before him. Still, for Prince Yasuhiko, responsibility came first and he carried on with his education, attending the Imperial Japanese Army Academy, graduating on May 27, 1908, receiving his commission as a second lieutenant on December 25. With his education completed, the following year he married HIH Nobuko, Princess Fumi, the eighth daughter of Emperor Meiji, on May 6, 1909. Eventually the couple would have four children; two girls (the eldest and youngest) and two boys. Outside of the domestic setting, Prince Yasuhiko continued with his military career, proving himself an intelligent and determined officer and he was promoted to full lieutenant by the end of 1910. In 1913 he earned promotion to captain, in 1918 to major and in 1922 to lieutenant colonel. Part of that time was spent far away from his home and family as from 1920 to 1923 the Prince, along with a brother and cousin, went to study at the famous French military academy at Saint-Cyr, a school founded by Napoleon and which is still the preeminent French military academy.

Prince Asaka studied tactics and did quite well but had a brush with death, being severely injured in a car accident while traveling in Normandy in which his cousin, Prince Kitashirakawa, was sadly killed. Princess Asaka rushed to France to be at his side and care for her husband herself and while he did recover the Prince would walk with a limp for the rest of his life. After leaving France, the Prince and Princess Asaka traveled to the United States. He was greatly impressed by the industry and technology of America, as well as the architecture as, upon returning to Japan, he had a new home built for his family in Tokyo in the Art Deco style that was all the rage in America (this home later became the official residence of the prime minister and today houses the Tokyo Metropolitan Teien Art Museum) in 1925. Sadly, not long after his grand, new home was finished in 1933 Princess Asaka died at only 42-years old. A devoted and compassionate woman, not a few have wondered if the life of the Prince would have unfolded the same way had her presence not been deprived from him and her family.

Grieved, Prince Asaka threw himself totally into his military career. A colonel in 1925, by 1929 he was a major general and the following year became an instructor at the Army Staff College. In 1931 he was promoted to lieutenant general and given command of the prestigious First Imperial Guards Division. In 1935, in recognition of his achievements and how much his advice was valued, he was given a seat on the Supreme War Council by HM the Showa Emperor. However, the trust the Emperor had in him was shaken by the events of the February 26 Incident. This was an attempted coup led by a faction of young officers called the “Righteous Army” whose stated goal was to get rid of the politics and corruption they felt was restricting the government, purge all western influences and have the Emperor take personal control of things in a “Showa Restoration” (assuming of course the Emperor would pursue the course they thought best). However, the coup attempt did not go totally as planned, the Prime Minister survived the assassination attempt and when HM the Emperor was presented with the demands of the plotters, all that mattered was that discipline and order had been violated and His Majesty ordered the uprising suppressed firmly and swiftly. When Prince Asaka showed some support for the young officers by advising the Emperor to accede to their wishes and form a new government, this attitude was noted.

Because he was seen as being partial to the politics of the right-wing, which the Emperor viewed as somewhat improper for a member of the Imperial Family, the trust that had existed between the two was somewhat diminished. Yet, while some factions, like those involved in the February 26 Incident, did have some radical ideas included in their manifesto, few could doubt that had the best interests of their country and people at heart. In any event, because of his perceived political ties, Prince Asaka was ordered out of Tokyo and transferred to the Japanese Central China Area Army in 1937. It is important to remember, in light of later events, that most viewed this as something of a ‘step down’ and was therefore, a sort of disciplinary action for straying into the political realm. Fortunately for Japan, Prince Asaka was a skilled soldier, unfortunately, his greatest success would be followed by a scandal that has haunted his country ever since. The army was, at that time, engaged in a fierce battle against the nationalists of the Republic of China who were fighting in front of their capital city, the city of Nanking. The commander of the army, General Matsui Iwane, was old and in poor health and relinquished command to his deputy, Prince Asaka who directed the final attack that saw the Chinese forces broken and the Japanese conquest of Nanking.

Everyone is probably familiar with at least some version of the story about what happened next. To this day the “Rape of Nanking” is a cornerstone of anti-Japanese sentiment in Communist China, however, their claims are undoubtedly immensely exaggerated. It seems clear that some terrible atrocity did happen in Nanking but the accounts vary wildly and in subsequent studies a great deal of the supposed “evidence” has been found to have been fabricated or tampered with. In the end, General Matsui was executed for the crime by the Allies after the war, however, in spite of, or perhaps even because of that, some have since argued that Prince Asaka was the one responsible for what did (or did not) happen when the Japanese occupied Nanking. This is not the place to go into the details of that whole controversy, however, as it concerns Prince Asaka himself, it must seem extremely improbably to any dispassionate observer that the Prince would actually order any such act of brutality. People have pointed to his far-right political ties (real or perceived) as evidence to condemn him but, actually, this shows how unlikely it is that the Prince would commit such a crime. After all, he was in China in the first place because he was, effectively, being punished and pushed out of the imperial inner-circle because of those right-wing ties. For someone who was, effectively, “on probation” one might say, ordering such an atrocity, especially at that particular time, would seem impossible to believe. Setting morality aside for the moment, simple self-interest would suggest that the Prince had the most reason to deplore such a violation of discipline and the code of military justice.

In any event, both General Matsui and Prince Asaka were recalled to Japan in the aftermath of the incident and while he remained on the Supreme War Council and was promoted to full general in 1939, he never held an active military command again. Still, his devotion to the august Emperor and Empire of Japan never wavered and as the war dragged on Prince Asaka showed himself willing to cross into the political realm if he felt the survival of the country depended on it. This happened in 1944 when Prince Asaka, along with three others, worked together to bring down the war-time government of Prime Minister and former General Hideki Tojo on the basis that Japan was clearly losing the war. Nonetheless, after the war Prince Asaka was interrogated by the American forces, mostly regarding the events at Nanking, but he was not brought to trial, General Matsui instead being tried and executed. Some have since accused General MacArthur of covering up for the Prince because he was a member of the Imperial Family but, in fact, it would have been very difficult to hold Prince Asaka to blame in any event based on the precedent already set by the Allied forces in the immediate post-war military trial of General Yamashita who was held to blame for crimes committed without his orders and without his knowledge by troops under his command (as ridiculous as that still sounds). So, General Matsui, even if he was absent during the event, would still have had to be executed or else it would have highlighted what a gross injustice the execution of General Yamashita had been. These arguments also take for granted the guilt of Prince Asaka when, in fact, there is no evidence that he ordered any acts of brutality and he had absolutely no motive to do so, in fact, he had every motivation to avoid such a thing.

However, Prince Asaka was punished anyway in a manner of speaking. According to new rules handed down by the American occupation regime, all collateral branches of the Imperial Family were stripped of their status and HIH Prince Yasuhiko Asaka became, legally, a simple commoner. He was banned from holding any public office or taking part in politics, all of his property was confiscated and of course he no longer had a career in the army as the Imperial Japanese Army was totally disbanded and remains so to this day. Yet, in spite of all this, Prince Asaka did not resort to bitterness or xenophobic hatred. On the contrary, he turned his thoughts to more spiritual matters and, undoubtedly to the surprise of a great many people, converted to Christianity and became the first member of the Japanese Imperial Family to be baptized into the Roman Catholic Church on December 18, 1951. When not attending mass his leisure time was spent focused on a new hobby. He became an avid golfer and dabbled in designing golf courses, one of his designs being the Plateau Golf Course in the beautiful Hakone area. For a man who had survived a tumultuous political climate, a deadly car accident and the battlefields of China, he lived a long life in his retirement. He died at home of natural causes at the age of 93 on April 13, 1981. Unfortunately, he remains a controversial figure but I have no doubt that his soul was in better standing that those who would be his judges in the end.

Christianity in Japan

Holy Mother

Holy Martyrs of Japan

St Paul Miki

The Annunciation

すべての人をうやまい、兄弟たちを愛し、神をおそれ、王を尊びなさい。

Making an Assassin a Saint

Some may know the Catholic Church in Korea is pushing to have An Jung Geun declared a saint. They have compared this assassin of Prince Ito Hirobumi to the great heroine St Joan of Arc.

Catholics everywhere should oppose this monstrous abuse of the causes of saints. An Jung Geun was no Joan of Arc. In the first place, St Joan most likely never killed anyone, she rode into battle carrying a banner to lead and inspire the soldiers who were fighting. Secondly, even if St Joan did kill people -it was in battle, during a war, fighting armed soldiers with honor on the battlefield. An Jung Geun murdered an unarmed man, taking him by surprise. That is totally different and it is an insult to Joan of Arc for the Korean clergy to compare her to a murderer.

Little Known Facts of Christian Japan

The Christian minority in Japan is very small but also very old, some may be surprised at how far back it goes. The Protestant groups mostly came to Japan recently, since the American occupation, but the Catholic and Kirishitan groups have been around for centuries. However, only about 1% of Japanese people are Christians and given that, it be surprise some to know that Japan has had seven Prime Ministers who have been Christians starting with Hara Kei in 1918 (a Catholic) and most recently Yukio Hatoyama in 2009 (a Baptist) and his immediate predecessor, Taro Aso is Catholic. Even during World War II, when most portray Japan has being entirely hostile to anything of western origin, there were men like Rear Admiral Stephen Yamamoto who was a Catholic and very close to HM the Showa Emperor. Christians have, in the past, also stepped forward to defend the culture and honor of Japan even in areas not exclusively Christian.

After World War II, in November of 1945 General Douglas MacArthur considered destroying the Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo and he called in two Catholics to ask about this; Father Bruno Bitter, a Jesuit priest, and Father Patrick Byrne, a Maryknoll priest. They defended Yasukuni Shrine and persuaded General MacArthur not to destroy it, pointing out that all nations have a duty to honor their war dead and that, while a Shinto shrine, Yasukuni Shrine is a national monument that honors people of all faiths who gave their lives in the service of the Emperor and the country. The Vatican sent a representative to the Empire of Manchukuo (for a long time it was said that the Vatican was the first to recognize Manchukuo, later, when it was unpopular to have anything to do with seeming pro-Japanese it was stressed, in an odd way, that this official representative did not imply official recognition. Whatever that means. The bottom line is that, at the time, there was a representative of the Holy See to the Manchukuo government). Closer ties than some might guess were also maintained after the war.

Pope Paul VI, in 1975, granted an audience the Buddhist monk Nakata Junna 仲田順和. Nakata was the head-priest at the Honsenji 品川寺, a Shingon temple of the Daigoji　醍醐寺 lineage in Shinagawa, Tokyo. He had spoken of his admiration for Pope Paul's stand on inter-faith dialogue and wanted to be a part of this process. He also wanted to highlight the injustice of those declared to be "war criminals" by the Allies after World War II. Nakata asked Pope Paul if he would say a Mass for the repose of the souls of the 1,618 men condemned as Class A, B and C war criminals. According to Nagoshi Futaranosuke 名越二荒之助, Pope Paul said the Tokyo war crimes tribunal and the condemnations of the accused men was ‘an embarrassment,’ and the Pope agreed to say the Mass. Pope Paul VI died before this could be done but on May 22, 1980 Bl. Pope John Paul II fulfilled the promise of his predecessor and had the Mass said for the souls of those men in St Peter's square at the Vatican. Rev. Nakata Junna was invited to attend and he did so, bringing a special gift for the Pope; a replica of the pagoda from his temple, housing the names of the men being remembered.

Not many are aware that HM the Empress was raised in a Catholic home and had a Catholic education all throughout her life. When it came to her marriage to the future Emperor, it was arranged by the Anglican Grand Chamberlain Koizumi and the Catholic Prime Minister Shigeru Yoshida. Today, although the Christian presence is small, one will not find any bad feelings between Japanese Christians and other religious or non-religious groups. In fact, the style and traditions of Christianity are so appreciated that many non-Christians ask to hold weddings in Catholic Churches because they admire the beauty and style so much. A special dispensation was given to make this possible because there are so many requests. The Christian community in Japan has diverse opinions, some correct and some incorrect in my view, as will invariably be the case with any group of people. However, they have made a unique contribution to the history of Japan and should always remember to be second to none in their support for their country, the Japanese community and HM the Emperor, remembering the words from I Peter 2:17 to "Show proper respect to everyone, love your community, fear God and honor the Emperor".

Christianity in Japan

Mass in Japan in the earliest days

Holy Mother, Divine Child

Japanese delegation visits Pope Gregory XIII

すべての人をうやまい、兄弟たちを愛し、神をおそれ、王を尊びなさい。